OKLAHOMA—Hundreds in central Oklahoma took time out of a windy Wednesday this afternoon to warm up in Armstrong Auditorium and learn about aliyot, mikva’ot and shekalim half a world and twice a millennium away as Hebrew University Prof. Uzi Leibner presented “Pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the Time of Jesus—What the Ophel Excavations Reveal.” The event at Armstrong Auditorium in Edmond was part of the Armstrong International Cultural Foundation speaker series, presented by the Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archaeology.

Prof. Leibner added shape, dimension, texture and solidity to the history of first-century Jews observing the Deuteronomy 16:16 command to “appear before the Lord thy God in the place which he shall choose” and going “up” to Jerusalem, focusing on archaeological evidence dating to the time period, as well as the records of Josephus and other histories.

Leibner, two years into a study focusing on what archaeology reveals about pilgrimages to Jerusalem, noted that observant Jews traveling to the holy city during the Bible’s three holy day periods were literally “climbing up to the festival.” He explained research and excavation on the routes toward Jerusalem that revealed steps carved into the trails and roads. Since some of these were extraneous to negotiating the terrain, and since ritual baths far from any town were found along the way, he and others identify these steps as enhancing the sense of ascending to the one and only temple of the one and only God of Israel.

Leibner noted some of the main historical sources that describe this time period, roughly corresponding to the lifetime of Jesus, and said that although much of the history is available in certain texts, little of the physical reality has been documented. He said that as more material is excavated, archaeologists ironically seem to come to know less, as sources previously taken at face value conflict with the placement and dating of structures, the necessities of urban planning or the characteristics or placement of artifacts.

Many pilgrims traversing these roads were making journeys that took weeks to complete, perhaps made only once in a lifetime. As they neared the city, more and more travelers came alongside, equating to multitudes arriving at Jerusalem in numbers unparalleled in the Roman Empire.

Leibner noted the tombs of prominent families placed alongside the routes into the city and the larger number of open pools than in other cities of the empire at the time. Due to characteristics ascertained from research and excavation, such as wide steps leading from the perimeter to the bottom, the Bethesda and Siloam pools have been identified as used for mass ritual bathing, with thousands of pilgrims nearing the ends of their journeys stepping down and in, and back up and out.

To observe the commanded holy days, the faithful had yet more to “ascend,” Leibner noted as he progressed through a slideshow that was also available to those viewing the stream at ArmstrongInstitute.org. He said that evidence indicates that most pilgrims, including those who lived near the city, for whom another entrance would have been more convenient (and downhill), accessed the city from the Southern Gate, utilizing the Siloam Pool, and walking up a stepped promenade designed for large numbers of pedestrians leading north to the temple.

Leibner and others identify the pilgrims’ final destination as the gates of the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount, accessed by the crowds of pilgrims through several staircases and other structures built for the purpose. He said that the change in elevation helped to ritualize the experience of arriving at the temple itself, where Jews obtained animals, offered burnt sacrifices, participated in ritual meals and participated in other aspects of worship.

These observances are corroborated and detailed by study of the teeth and isotopes of animal bones and by the nature of vessels that were apparently intentionally perforated after being used as pure vessels. A site roughly a mile from the city has been excavated that appears to have served as a workshop for making these “disposable” cooking pots: Among its facilities were found ritual baths for the workers.

Other artifacts connected to temple worship have been discovered by archaeologists in towns and cities dozens of miles away, particularly oil lamps that are similar to those of other dwellings, yet match the clay content found in and around Jerusalem. Leibner also cited the presence of thousands of coins in the city and their location and quantities as measures of pilgrim traffic through several time periods.

Following his hour-long talk, Leibner answered questions from audience members about provenance of sacrificial animals, numbers of pilgrims and other aspects of Jewish worship in Jerusalem at the time of Jesus.

According to institute staff member Brent Nagtegaal, in 2022, the institute convinced Leibner to venture from his Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine fields of study and excavation in Galilee to direct excavations on the Ophel in Jerusalem, leading students from Herbert W. Armstrong College, headquartered in Edmond, and staff from the Armstrong Institute of Biblical Archaeology in Jerusalem. Leibner complimented the college and institute and its founder, Gerald Flurry, who was in attendance, and called the work so far “extremely fruitful” for the excavation of ancient Jerusalem, remarking that he is looking forward to the “next seasons.”

The address at Armstrong Auditorium, currently hosting the archaeology exhibit “Kingdom of David and Solomon Discovered,” was part of a three-day visit where he dined with Mr. Flurry and institute staff members and caught up with workers he had led on previous digs. Leibner, who is a former high school basketball coach, also joined a group attending a professional Oklahoma City Thunder basketball game.

Since 2006, Armstrong students and staff have participated in six excavations with the late archaeologist Dr. Eilat Mazar in the City of David and the Ophel, and three Ophel excavations over the past three years with Prof. Leibner. Several further excavations are planned for 2025. Excavation histories and updates are available at ArmstrongInstitute.org.